TIKAL MAYA RUINS - GUATEMALA
VISITING THE RUINS & THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT TIKAL
In among the jungle rain forest of Guatemala, you will find one of the largest remaining Mayan ruins in all of Central America. These ancient ruins of Tikal stand as a silent testimony of what once stood as a powerful and magnificent metropolis. It was here in the rain forests of Belize and Guatemala, that the great Mayan civilization developed and flowered. In many respects the Maya had become incredibly sophisticated for their time, having developed an advanced mathematical and linguistic system. They had no metallurgical skill and had failed to discover the use of the wheel, yet their architectural, scientific, and artistic achievements were unexcelled by any other ancient American people. So the question now to ask is, who were the builders of Tikal? Where did they come from? What was the cause of the collapse of the great Mayan cities which took place around 900 AD? These questions have yet to be answered with any degree of certainty.
VISITING THE RUINS
The ruins of Tikal are located 585 kilometers to the north of Guatemala City. It is possible to reach the ruins by bus or car via roads of dubious quality from both Guatemala City and from neighboring Belize. Still, most visitors prefer the convenience of flying into the international airport located at Santa Elna, Peten. From there it is a 64 kilometer trip by bus or taxi to the visitors center of Tikal. Although it is possible to tour the ruins in one day, it is highly recommended to plan a visit of three or more days. Remember, the park has an extension of 576 square kilometers and is much more than simply an archaeological reserve, it is also the first and one of the largest nature reserves to be established in Central America. You will be walking in the tropical rain forest so, a raincoat, insect repellent is a must. There are a variety of accommodations to suit all budgets to be found both within the park and in the nearby towns of Flores and Santa Elena. There is a campground adjacent to the visitors center.
It is a twenty minute walk from the museum and hotel compound to the Great Plaza. This complex of massive structures is the ancient heart of Tikal. As you enter the plaza it is hard not to be astounded by the sheer size and magnificence of the temple complex. The pyramid of the Giant Jaguar (Temple 1) rises 45 meters above the plaza and faces west toward the setting sun, considered by the Maya as the portal to the underworld. Temple 2, is located at the western edge of the Plaza and is oriented towards the rising sun. Reaching a height of 38 meters, it is also known as the Pyramid of the Masks because of the huge grotesque faces which flank the stairway. Both these great pyramids were erected around the year 700 AD by the ruler Ha Sawa Chaan (also known as Ah Cacau) whose richly adorned tomb was discovered deep inside of Temple 1.
Just off the south side of the Great Plaza lies a complex of residential and administrative palaces which is known as the Central Acropolis. It was here where the royal family and their relatives lived. This complex is made up of 45 buildings and covers an area of 1.5 hectares. Many of these were used as residences. In some of the chambers you can still see the low platforms which, when covered with mats and skins, served as beds. It is here where one of the best known structures in Tikal is found: Maler Palace, so named because this was where one of the pioneering archeologists set up his residence while carrying out his research between 1895 and 1904. His signature can still be seen on one of the door jambs of the main entrance.
On the other side of the Great Plaza are found the ruins of the North Acropolis. There, buried beneath the surface, have been found the vestiges of more than 100 structures including some of the oldest found at Tikal dating as early as 600 BC. Tunnels take the visitor underground where he can explore several passageways containing colossal masks and other details which adorned earlier temples. On the surface, the North Acropolis is comprised of a complex of large pyramids and palaces.
South of Temple 1, a small ball court was built during the Late Classic. This is one of the smallest courts known. Sitting on the flanks of the Temple of the Giant Jaguar you can imagine how it might have been to attend a game in the year 800. Athletes wore protective pads on their needs and hips. A large, heavy latex-rubber ball was employed. Players were prohibited from using their hands. Exact rules of play are not known but at least part of the object of the game included maneuvering the ball through a stone hoop mounted vertically on the side wall of the court. Slaves were often forced to play and losers were sacrificed on nearby alters where still beating hearts were ripped out of the bodies of the captives.
It is a ten minute walk from the Great Plaza to Temple 4, via the Tozzer Causeway. This is the largest pyramid at Tikal and one of the most massive of all pre-Colombian structures, reaching a height of 65 meters. The only taller Mayan pyramid is located at the ruins of Mirador, 70 kilometers to the north of Tikal. More than 230,000 cubic meters of building materials went into the construction of Temple 4. It was completed in the year 740 AD by the ruler Yaxkin Chaan K'awil. It is also know as the Temple of Double Headed Serpent. A steep stairway leads up to the top of the temple where a splendid panorama of the surrounding ruins and forest canopy can be seen. For an unforgettable experience, get up early and be on top of the temple at dawn to watch the jungle come alive as the first golden rays of the sunrise caress the Earth and dispel the midst.
Ten minutes south of the Great Plaza via marked trails lies the Lost World Complex (El Mundo Perdido) which is comprised of 38 structures. The Great Pyramid, located at the center of the group, was built during the Late Preclassic around the year 200 AD and was probably the ceremonial center of Tikal at that time. It is a four-sided symmetrical structure 30 meters high. Its stairways are flanked by terraces and gigantic masks. An important feature of this complex is the center for astronomical study to be found there. This includes a group of structures carefully oriented for the observation of the cycles of the Sun, Moon, Venus, and other celestial bodies as well as solstices, and equinoxes, a specially constructed causeway.
Just east of the Lost World stands the Plaza of the Seven Temples, so named for the group of Late Classic structures that line the eastern side of the plaza. On the north side of the plaza was discovered a triple ball court, unique in the entire Mayan World. Other structures in the complex date back to Preclassic times.
Continuing southeast along the Mendez Causeway and a ten minute walk from the Lost World complex, is located one of the largest clusters of major palace-type constructions known at Tikal: Group G. The visitor can enter the first court via a vaulted tunnel which runs through a Late Classic palace. Access to the tunnel is through the mouth of a huge monster mask. The palace consists of 29 vaulted chambers built in the shape of a rectangular "U".
Another ten minutes walking southeast along Mendez Causeway will bring you to Temple 6, the Pyramid of the Inscriptions. Completed by ruler Yaxkin Caa Chac in the year 766 AD, it stands 55 meters in height and was not discovered until 1951. The rear of the huge roof comb is covered with hieroglyphs.
A special kind of architectural style was developed at Tikal between the years 633 and 790 AD and is called the Twin Pyramid. This style can be seen at complexes L, M, N, O, P, and R. These ritual groups were built in different localities around the city and were presumably constructed to commemorate the ending of a Katun or period of 20 years. These complexes include two four sided pyramids located on the east and were sides of a small plaza. To the north is located a chamber with no roof, with a vaulted access doorway and containing a stelae bearing a portrait of a ruler. An inscribed alter is found in the interior. To the south is located a palace with nine doors, a number associated with the nine levels of the underworld. In front of the eastern pyramid were erected numerous stelae which, for reasons not well understood, are devoid of any inscriptions. It is thought that the stelae had been covered in stucco and hieroglyphs and other inscriptions had been painted on them.
ORIGIN OF THE MAYA PEOPLE
According to most scholars the early colonists of America were of Asian decent, having crossed over the land bridge spanning the Bering Strait - during the end of the last Ice Age. Several archaeological excavations in highland Guatemala have revealed the existence of Indian artifacts, primarily stone spear heads and butchering tools associated with the remains of deer. The first colonists were semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers. It was once thought that the first permanent settlement were intimately associated with the advent of agriculture. More recent ecological research has shown that permanent settlements may have been established in areas rich in natural resources long before food crops were cultivated. The natural abundance of wild plant and animal food source found in the forest and jungles of Mesoamerica, made it possible for human foragers to remain in stable villages. Agriculture and animal domestication developed gradually over hundreds or even thousands of years.
Archaeological evidence indicates that the first permanently settle agricultural communities in the Mayan zone emerge sometime around the second millennium before Christ. A site called Cuello, locate in what is now northern Belize, is the earliest known settled community an was continuously inhabited from 2500 BC until the end of the Classic Period. The oldest proto-Mayan pottery yet discovered was found here. By 1000 BC, a variety of domesticated food species have appeared which included: maize, beans, squash, tomatoes, chile, papaya, manioc, cacao, turkey, and native stingless honey bees.
The first truly complex culture to emerge in Mesoamerica was that of the Olmec civilization which first appeared around 1400 BC along the Gulf Coast in the southwest portion of the Yucatan Peninsula. Within a few centuries the mysterious Olmec had build elaborate ceremonial centers and had developed a distinctive style of monumental art unique in the region. It is thought that the foundations of classic Mayan civilization rest on an Olmec heritage but much still remains to be discovered.
ESTABLISHMENT OF TIKAL
The first human settlers arrived in the vicinity of Tikal around the year 900 BC. The first village was small and subsistence depended on a mixed economy of simple farming combined with the exploitation of a variety of wild plants and animals. They probably lived in small timber-framed houses with wattle-and-daub walls, thatched roofs and earthen floors. There are no hard rocks to make tools out of to be found in the limestone plains typifying this region, therefore obsidian and igneous stones for grinding were imported from the highlands. Trade routes with coastal communities provided salt and shells. In this early formative period the society remained fairly homogeneous with little class distinction. As the community grew over the ensuing centuries, differences in wealth and social status within it became greater and eventually aristocratic groups emerged.
Very little in the way of archaeological remains have been found to give us a better idea of life at Tikal during its first five hundred years of development. Artifacts from this time consist of pottery shards, assorted trash deposits and unadorned primitive burial sites. Not until the Chuen Period, between 200 and 50 BC do we see the first construction of large ceremonial buildings and other evidence of complex social structure. By around 1000 BC, the first temple structure at the North Acropolis had been built and the Great Plaza area was as large and formal as in Late Classic times. The evidence indicates that Tikal was now a major ceremonial and commercial center with a large permanent population.
MAYAN CIVILIZATIONS
The long, gradual formative period of the Pre-Classic finally culminated in Classic Maya Civilization. Ceremonial centers grew in size and importance. Society became stratified into distinct classes; priests, nobles, peasant farmers, artisans and slaves. Workers became increasingly specialized and arts, crafts, and architecture reached new heights of aesthetic complexity and sophistication. The major features associated with the beginning of the Classic Period include the development of the Long Count calendar, an advanced system of writing, large public buildings, the use of the Corbeled Vaulted Arch, luxurious polychrome pottery, and elaborate monumental art. A stela cult emerged and dozens of beautifully carved stone monoliths depicting richly adorned rulers were erected. The stelae usually contained hieroglyphic texts which spoke of the exploits of the royal families as well as military victories and coronations. Similar cultural development was occurring throughout the southern lowlands and powerful rival states such as Caracol, Mirador, Yaxchilian, and Calakmul vied with Tikal for regional influence and domination. There are a multitude of similarities that can be seen between the Classic Maya civilization and its counterparts in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. These include well developed agriculture and stock breeding, four social classes, fine woven cloth of cotton and other materials, assignment of deities to the heavenly spheres, the development of astronomy, astrology, calendars and mathematics, serpent columns and balustrades in temples, the cross and the sacred tree, and a sophisticated system of hieroglyphic writing. Mayan insignias of kingship almost precisely duplicated those of the Wold World fan bearers, scepters, tiger throne, lotus staff and lotus throne, canopies, palanquins, and the blown conch shell as royal trumpet. Astonishing similarities also exist in the basic content of the mythologies of these supposedly isolated from one another Old and New world cultures. Common mythic figures include the cosmic tree of life having a bird with outstretched wings at its summit and a serpent at its roots, the four sacred colors, the four sacred directions, the four primal elements (fire, water, air, earth), a god who dies and is resurrected, and the concept of heaven being in the realm above the hell below. All these similarities have caused some scholars to believe that there must have been cultural interchange between the Old and New Worlds in ancient times made possible by Pacific and Atlantic Ocean voyagers. It is interesting to note that the foundations of the great Mayan temples were correctly engineered to be tangent to the Earth indicating that the architects were conscious of the planet's spherical surface curvature at a time when European authorities insisted that the Earth must be flat. Whether or not Mayan culture developed in complete isolation from the Old World remains an area of heated dispute among scientists.
During the Early Classic period (250-550 AD) Tikal and its close ally Uaxactun emerged as the most important city-states of the Mayan world due to their political and economic power. Tikal was the first city to adopt an Emblem Glyph, a practice soon emulated by other neighboring sites. The Emblem Glyphs served as a sort of Mayan coat of arms on monuments. The ruling elite were exercising ever more control over the general population and increasing emphasis was put on building ever more massive and impressive temples and palaces. Rulers were depicted in monumental art as god-men and all others were forced to worship them as deities. Blood sacrifices, including human sacrifice, became common, and elaborate ceremonies of bizarre forms of bloodletting which included ritualized mutilations, decapitation and disembowelment were celebrated.
During the Late Classic the population of Tikal swelled to nearly 100,000 and the city-state covered an area of more than 120 square kilometers. In this period art, science, and architecture flourished while at the same time warring and conflict between Tikal and neighboring states steadily increased. It is important to keep in mind that there never existed a Mayan Empire with a centerized capital enforcing federal laws as was the case with the Roman Empire, Mayan civilization was divided into several dozen powerful and autonomous city-states with many smaller communities falling into the sphere of influence of one or another of these. Evidence of fortifications and deep trenches lining the perifpery of many cities attest to the warring nature of the people. Armed struggles usually ended with Tikal victorious but defeat did occur on at least one occasion as was the case in the Late Classic war with the neighboring state of Caracol. By 750 AD the population of the Mayan realm exceeded three million souls. We may surmise that warring increased in direct proportion to the pressures of overpopulation and ecological degradation which caused shortages in resources. Studies done on skeletal remains spanning the last 500 years before the collapse indicate that the quality of nutrition of the general population was declining as soil fertility diminished due to intensive cultivated of maize. Scientists as yet can only speculate as to the reason for the demise of the Mayan population and resource depletion would lead to a gradual decline. The abandonment of the great Mayan centers was not gradual but quite abrupt. Political collapse occurred at Copan around the year 822 AD. The last stela was errected at Tikal in the year 869 and at Uzxactun in 899. Drought, plague, earthquake, peasant revolt, war, barbarian invasion, food shortage, forced migration....these are among the reasons scholars give us in explanation for the Mayan collapse. What really happened remains a mystery.
What was it like to live in Tikal during the Classic Period? The main ceremonial center was built on a series of low hills surrounded by bajos, or low swampy areas, including several aguadas, or water holes, which had been plastered with clay to better retain the precious liquid. There are no rivers at Tikal and the porous limestone on which the forest grows quickly absorbs rainfall. The central zone of Tikal was reserved for priests and nobles. Temples and palaces were nothing like they appear today but were finished with a smooth stucco surface and painted in rich colors with a deep red tone being dominant. Friezes and detailing included brilliant colors in shades of blue, green and yellow. Splendidly attired priests wearing magnificent quetzal plume headdresses performed ritual sacrifices on the pyramid steps. Copious amounts of copal incense burned in beautifully decorated ceramic censers filling the air with sweet, pungent smoke while members of the aristocracy went about thier administrative duties in the opulent luxury of their palaces. Scribes labored in libraries filled with books on every subject including scientific treaties, mythic stories, and historical accounts. Astronomers studied the heavens from observatory platforms. Keepers of the sacred calendar gave recommendations for the proper time to plant crops as well as performing sacred calculations prediciting celestial phenomena millions of years into the future. Slaves, the spoils of war, worked from morning to dusk in the construction of new monuments and temples while expert artisans were employed in the carving of monument decorations and painting the temples and palaces. Surrounding the city center extended the farms and villages of the rural peasant population. We can imagine that their communities looked very similar to those of many present day Maya. They lived in simple wood framed adobe huts with earthen floors. The men busied themselves with the cultivation of corn, beans, and vegetables and hunting such wild game as pacas (a large rodent), deer, jaguar, peccary, macaws, and monkeys. The women and children stayed closer to home and worked in the preparation of good, weaving, looking after the turkeys and caring for babes. Several times a week villagers would flood into the city center at dawn to attend the market. Here products of every description were, bought, traded and sold; coca beans often being used as a form of currency in these transactions. Traders from as far away as the Caribbean coast and from the central highlands were also there selling their exotic wares of obsidian, jade, quetzal feathers, conch shells, dried fish, and sea salt. On special occasions the general public was invited to witness a special ceremony or a ball game at the Great Plaza. Thousands of beautifully dressed citizens filled the plaza and sat before the steps of the pyramid of the Giant Jaguar where their imaginations were captured by the spectible. Extravagantly robed priests wearing masks depicting animal nagulas and mythic entities, performed rituals designed to teach the cosmology, morality, and belief system which provided the foundations of Mayan culture. Ball games were certainly attended with great enthusiasm. These displays of atheltic prowess and skill must have been very exciting as well as somewhat macabre. Evidence suggests that the sacred ball game became quite violent as players literally wagered their lives on the outcome. The losers were offered in sacrifice to the gods.
MAYAN ACHIEVEMENTS
Of all the native people of the Americas only the Maya were completely literate, having a system of writing capable of expressing an unlimited range of ideas. Like the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, the Mayan system is not a pure phonetic system but rather employs a variety of symbol types including deity name glyphs expressing entire concepts, phonetic glyphs which stood for individual syllables, bar and dot numbers, and day signs. Unfortunately, of the thousands of Mayan books - Biographies, collections of songs, books of science, history, prophesy, genealogies - only four survived the fanatical book-burners of the Spanish conquest.
A system of numeric calculations was developed using a system of dots and bars. One dot equals the number 1. One bar equals the number 5. Thus, two bars placed one atop the other with two dots on top gave the number 12. The discovery of the zero, written as a stylized shell, allowed the Maya to develop a vigesimal place system, in which every added zero pultiplies the number by 20 (i.e., 1, 20, 400, 8000 etc.) The Maya developed a more complex calendar system than any other pre-modern civilization. It was constructed from three main counts or cycles running alongside and interacting with one another; the Long Count, the Sacred Almanac, and the Solar Year cycles. Additionally, the Maya developed more ritual and astronomical cycles which interacted with the 3 main ones. The Long Count consist of cycles which increase by a factor of 20. Thus, the Long Count year of 360 days, called Tun, was multiplied by 20 to get the Katun of 7,200 days. Twenty Katun cycles made one Baktun cycle of 144,000 days. And so on until the highest cycle, the alatun, consisting of 160,000 Baktunes or about 63 million of our years. Using the Long Count cycle, the Maya ran their calendar backward and forward for immense spans of time.
The sacred Almanac was used primarily to schedule ceremonial activities and for horoscopes. It consists of a "week" of 20 days which are named after gods who repeat themselves in endless succession. Running alongside the 20 days are the numbers 1 to 13, which also repeat themselves endlessly. It takes 260 days (13 x 20) for any combination of day name and number to return. This almanac has existed at least since 500 BC and is still used today by traditional Maya day-keepers in highland Guatemala. The Solar Year consisted of 365 days divided into 18 months of 20 days, and final period of 5 days. The Solar Year cycle was mainly concerned with farming and continues to be used today by contemporary Highland Guatemalan Maya. Mayan astronomers developed lunar cycle that consisted of the age of the current moon counted from disappearance, the position of the moon in a lunar half-year and the number of days in the current moon. All the visible planets were followed by Mayan astronomers who calculated their symodical revolution. For example, they calculated Venus, synodical revolution with an error of only 23 seconds from the actual figure of 583.92 days.
VISITING THE RUINS
The ruins of Tikal are located 585 kilometers to the north of Guatemala City. It is possible to reach the ruins by bus or car via roads of dubious quality from both Guatemala City and from neighboring Belize. Still, most visitors prefer the convenience of flying into the international airport located at Santa Elna, Peten. From there it is a 64 kilometer trip by bus or taxi to the visitors center of Tikal. Although it is possible to tour the ruins in one day, it is highly recommended to plan a visit of three or more days. Remember, the park has an extension of 576 square kilometers and is much more than simply an archaeological reserve, it is also the first and one of the largest nature reserves to be established in Central America. You will be walking in the tropical rain forest so, a raincoat, insect repellent is a must. There are a variety of accommodations to suit all budgets to be found both within the park and in the nearby towns of Flores and Santa Elena. There is a campground adjacent to the visitors center.
It is a twenty minute walk from the museum and hotel compound to the Great Plaza. This complex of massive structures is the ancient heart of Tikal. As you enter the plaza it is hard not to be astounded by the sheer size and magnificence of the temple complex. The pyramid of the Giant Jaguar (Temple 1) rises 45 meters above the plaza and faces west toward the setting sun, considered by the Maya as the portal to the underworld. Temple 2, is located at the western edge of the Plaza and is oriented towards the rising sun. Reaching a height of 38 meters, it is also known as the Pyramid of the Masks because of the huge grotesque faces which flank the stairway. Both these great pyramids were erected around the year 700 AD by the ruler Ha Sawa Chaan (also known as Ah Cacau) whose richly adorned tomb was discovered deep inside of Temple 1.
Just off the south side of the Great Plaza lies a complex of residential and administrative palaces which is known as the Central Acropolis. It was here where the royal family and their relatives lived. This complex is made up of 45 buildings and covers an area of 1.5 hectares. Many of these were used as residences. In some of the chambers you can still see the low platforms which, when covered with mats and skins, served as beds. It is here where one of the best known structures in Tikal is found: Maler Palace, so named because this was where one of the pioneering archeologists set up his residence while carrying out his research between 1895 and 1904. His signature can still be seen on one of the door jambs of the main entrance.
On the other side of the Great Plaza are found the ruins of the North Acropolis. There, buried beneath the surface, have been found the vestiges of more than 100 structures including some of the oldest found at Tikal dating as early as 600 BC. Tunnels take the visitor underground where he can explore several passageways containing colossal masks and other details which adorned earlier temples. On the surface, the North Acropolis is comprised of a complex of large pyramids and palaces.
South of Temple 1, a small ball court was built during the Late Classic. This is one of the smallest courts known. Sitting on the flanks of the Temple of the Giant Jaguar you can imagine how it might have been to attend a game in the year 800. Athletes wore protective pads on their needs and hips. A large, heavy latex-rubber ball was employed. Players were prohibited from using their hands. Exact rules of play are not known but at least part of the object of the game included maneuvering the ball through a stone hoop mounted vertically on the side wall of the court. Slaves were often forced to play and losers were sacrificed on nearby alters where still beating hearts were ripped out of the bodies of the captives.
It is a ten minute walk from the Great Plaza to Temple 4, via the Tozzer Causeway. This is the largest pyramid at Tikal and one of the most massive of all pre-Colombian structures, reaching a height of 65 meters. The only taller Mayan pyramid is located at the ruins of Mirador, 70 kilometers to the north of Tikal. More than 230,000 cubic meters of building materials went into the construction of Temple 4. It was completed in the year 740 AD by the ruler Yaxkin Chaan K'awil. It is also know as the Temple of Double Headed Serpent. A steep stairway leads up to the top of the temple where a splendid panorama of the surrounding ruins and forest canopy can be seen. For an unforgettable experience, get up early and be on top of the temple at dawn to watch the jungle come alive as the first golden rays of the sunrise caress the Earth and dispel the midst.
Ten minutes south of the Great Plaza via marked trails lies the Lost World Complex (El Mundo Perdido) which is comprised of 38 structures. The Great Pyramid, located at the center of the group, was built during the Late Preclassic around the year 200 AD and was probably the ceremonial center of Tikal at that time. It is a four-sided symmetrical structure 30 meters high. Its stairways are flanked by terraces and gigantic masks. An important feature of this complex is the center for astronomical study to be found there. This includes a group of structures carefully oriented for the observation of the cycles of the Sun, Moon, Venus, and other celestial bodies as well as solstices, and equinoxes, a specially constructed causeway.
Just east of the Lost World stands the Plaza of the Seven Temples, so named for the group of Late Classic structures that line the eastern side of the plaza. On the north side of the plaza was discovered a triple ball court, unique in the entire Mayan World. Other structures in the complex date back to Preclassic times.
Continuing southeast along the Mendez Causeway and a ten minute walk from the Lost World complex, is located one of the largest clusters of major palace-type constructions known at Tikal: Group G. The visitor can enter the first court via a vaulted tunnel which runs through a Late Classic palace. Access to the tunnel is through the mouth of a huge monster mask. The palace consists of 29 vaulted chambers built in the shape of a rectangular "U".
Another ten minutes walking southeast along Mendez Causeway will bring you to Temple 6, the Pyramid of the Inscriptions. Completed by ruler Yaxkin Caa Chac in the year 766 AD, it stands 55 meters in height and was not discovered until 1951. The rear of the huge roof comb is covered with hieroglyphs.
A special kind of architectural style was developed at Tikal between the years 633 and 790 AD and is called the Twin Pyramid. This style can be seen at complexes L, M, N, O, P, and R. These ritual groups were built in different localities around the city and were presumably constructed to commemorate the ending of a Katun or period of 20 years. These complexes include two four sided pyramids located on the east and were sides of a small plaza. To the north is located a chamber with no roof, with a vaulted access doorway and containing a stelae bearing a portrait of a ruler. An inscribed alter is found in the interior. To the south is located a palace with nine doors, a number associated with the nine levels of the underworld. In front of the eastern pyramid were erected numerous stelae which, for reasons not well understood, are devoid of any inscriptions. It is thought that the stelae had been covered in stucco and hieroglyphs and other inscriptions had been painted on them.
ORIGIN OF THE MAYA PEOPLE
According to most scholars the early colonists of America were of Asian decent, having crossed over the land bridge spanning the Bering Strait - during the end of the last Ice Age. Several archaeological excavations in highland Guatemala have revealed the existence of Indian artifacts, primarily stone spear heads and butchering tools associated with the remains of deer. The first colonists were semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers. It was once thought that the first permanent settlement were intimately associated with the advent of agriculture. More recent ecological research has shown that permanent settlements may have been established in areas rich in natural resources long before food crops were cultivated. The natural abundance of wild plant and animal food source found in the forest and jungles of Mesoamerica, made it possible for human foragers to remain in stable villages. Agriculture and animal domestication developed gradually over hundreds or even thousands of years.
Archaeological evidence indicates that the first permanently settle agricultural communities in the Mayan zone emerge sometime around the second millennium before Christ. A site called Cuello, locate in what is now northern Belize, is the earliest known settled community an was continuously inhabited from 2500 BC until the end of the Classic Period. The oldest proto-Mayan pottery yet discovered was found here. By 1000 BC, a variety of domesticated food species have appeared which included: maize, beans, squash, tomatoes, chile, papaya, manioc, cacao, turkey, and native stingless honey bees.
The first truly complex culture to emerge in Mesoamerica was that of the Olmec civilization which first appeared around 1400 BC along the Gulf Coast in the southwest portion of the Yucatan Peninsula. Within a few centuries the mysterious Olmec had build elaborate ceremonial centers and had developed a distinctive style of monumental art unique in the region. It is thought that the foundations of classic Mayan civilization rest on an Olmec heritage but much still remains to be discovered.
ESTABLISHMENT OF TIKAL
The first human settlers arrived in the vicinity of Tikal around the year 900 BC. The first village was small and subsistence depended on a mixed economy of simple farming combined with the exploitation of a variety of wild plants and animals. They probably lived in small timber-framed houses with wattle-and-daub walls, thatched roofs and earthen floors. There are no hard rocks to make tools out of to be found in the limestone plains typifying this region, therefore obsidian and igneous stones for grinding were imported from the highlands. Trade routes with coastal communities provided salt and shells. In this early formative period the society remained fairly homogeneous with little class distinction. As the community grew over the ensuing centuries, differences in wealth and social status within it became greater and eventually aristocratic groups emerged.
Very little in the way of archaeological remains have been found to give us a better idea of life at Tikal during its first five hundred years of development. Artifacts from this time consist of pottery shards, assorted trash deposits and unadorned primitive burial sites. Not until the Chuen Period, between 200 and 50 BC do we see the first construction of large ceremonial buildings and other evidence of complex social structure. By around 1000 BC, the first temple structure at the North Acropolis had been built and the Great Plaza area was as large and formal as in Late Classic times. The evidence indicates that Tikal was now a major ceremonial and commercial center with a large permanent population.
MAYAN CIVILIZATIONS
The long, gradual formative period of the Pre-Classic finally culminated in Classic Maya Civilization. Ceremonial centers grew in size and importance. Society became stratified into distinct classes; priests, nobles, peasant farmers, artisans and slaves. Workers became increasingly specialized and arts, crafts, and architecture reached new heights of aesthetic complexity and sophistication. The major features associated with the beginning of the Classic Period include the development of the Long Count calendar, an advanced system of writing, large public buildings, the use of the Corbeled Vaulted Arch, luxurious polychrome pottery, and elaborate monumental art. A stela cult emerged and dozens of beautifully carved stone monoliths depicting richly adorned rulers were erected. The stelae usually contained hieroglyphic texts which spoke of the exploits of the royal families as well as military victories and coronations. Similar cultural development was occurring throughout the southern lowlands and powerful rival states such as Caracol, Mirador, Yaxchilian, and Calakmul vied with Tikal for regional influence and domination. There are a multitude of similarities that can be seen between the Classic Maya civilization and its counterparts in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. These include well developed agriculture and stock breeding, four social classes, fine woven cloth of cotton and other materials, assignment of deities to the heavenly spheres, the development of astronomy, astrology, calendars and mathematics, serpent columns and balustrades in temples, the cross and the sacred tree, and a sophisticated system of hieroglyphic writing. Mayan insignias of kingship almost precisely duplicated those of the Wold World fan bearers, scepters, tiger throne, lotus staff and lotus throne, canopies, palanquins, and the blown conch shell as royal trumpet. Astonishing similarities also exist in the basic content of the mythologies of these supposedly isolated from one another Old and New world cultures. Common mythic figures include the cosmic tree of life having a bird with outstretched wings at its summit and a serpent at its roots, the four sacred colors, the four sacred directions, the four primal elements (fire, water, air, earth), a god who dies and is resurrected, and the concept of heaven being in the realm above the hell below. All these similarities have caused some scholars to believe that there must have been cultural interchange between the Old and New Worlds in ancient times made possible by Pacific and Atlantic Ocean voyagers. It is interesting to note that the foundations of the great Mayan temples were correctly engineered to be tangent to the Earth indicating that the architects were conscious of the planet's spherical surface curvature at a time when European authorities insisted that the Earth must be flat. Whether or not Mayan culture developed in complete isolation from the Old World remains an area of heated dispute among scientists.
During the Early Classic period (250-550 AD) Tikal and its close ally Uaxactun emerged as the most important city-states of the Mayan world due to their political and economic power. Tikal was the first city to adopt an Emblem Glyph, a practice soon emulated by other neighboring sites. The Emblem Glyphs served as a sort of Mayan coat of arms on monuments. The ruling elite were exercising ever more control over the general population and increasing emphasis was put on building ever more massive and impressive temples and palaces. Rulers were depicted in monumental art as god-men and all others were forced to worship them as deities. Blood sacrifices, including human sacrifice, became common, and elaborate ceremonies of bizarre forms of bloodletting which included ritualized mutilations, decapitation and disembowelment were celebrated.
During the Late Classic the population of Tikal swelled to nearly 100,000 and the city-state covered an area of more than 120 square kilometers. In this period art, science, and architecture flourished while at the same time warring and conflict between Tikal and neighboring states steadily increased. It is important to keep in mind that there never existed a Mayan Empire with a centerized capital enforcing federal laws as was the case with the Roman Empire, Mayan civilization was divided into several dozen powerful and autonomous city-states with many smaller communities falling into the sphere of influence of one or another of these. Evidence of fortifications and deep trenches lining the perifpery of many cities attest to the warring nature of the people. Armed struggles usually ended with Tikal victorious but defeat did occur on at least one occasion as was the case in the Late Classic war with the neighboring state of Caracol. By 750 AD the population of the Mayan realm exceeded three million souls. We may surmise that warring increased in direct proportion to the pressures of overpopulation and ecological degradation which caused shortages in resources. Studies done on skeletal remains spanning the last 500 years before the collapse indicate that the quality of nutrition of the general population was declining as soil fertility diminished due to intensive cultivated of maize. Scientists as yet can only speculate as to the reason for the demise of the Mayan population and resource depletion would lead to a gradual decline. The abandonment of the great Mayan centers was not gradual but quite abrupt. Political collapse occurred at Copan around the year 822 AD. The last stela was errected at Tikal in the year 869 and at Uzxactun in 899. Drought, plague, earthquake, peasant revolt, war, barbarian invasion, food shortage, forced migration....these are among the reasons scholars give us in explanation for the Mayan collapse. What really happened remains a mystery.
What was it like to live in Tikal during the Classic Period? The main ceremonial center was built on a series of low hills surrounded by bajos, or low swampy areas, including several aguadas, or water holes, which had been plastered with clay to better retain the precious liquid. There are no rivers at Tikal and the porous limestone on which the forest grows quickly absorbs rainfall. The central zone of Tikal was reserved for priests and nobles. Temples and palaces were nothing like they appear today but were finished with a smooth stucco surface and painted in rich colors with a deep red tone being dominant. Friezes and detailing included brilliant colors in shades of blue, green and yellow. Splendidly attired priests wearing magnificent quetzal plume headdresses performed ritual sacrifices on the pyramid steps. Copious amounts of copal incense burned in beautifully decorated ceramic censers filling the air with sweet, pungent smoke while members of the aristocracy went about thier administrative duties in the opulent luxury of their palaces. Scribes labored in libraries filled with books on every subject including scientific treaties, mythic stories, and historical accounts. Astronomers studied the heavens from observatory platforms. Keepers of the sacred calendar gave recommendations for the proper time to plant crops as well as performing sacred calculations prediciting celestial phenomena millions of years into the future. Slaves, the spoils of war, worked from morning to dusk in the construction of new monuments and temples while expert artisans were employed in the carving of monument decorations and painting the temples and palaces. Surrounding the city center extended the farms and villages of the rural peasant population. We can imagine that their communities looked very similar to those of many present day Maya. They lived in simple wood framed adobe huts with earthen floors. The men busied themselves with the cultivation of corn, beans, and vegetables and hunting such wild game as pacas (a large rodent), deer, jaguar, peccary, macaws, and monkeys. The women and children stayed closer to home and worked in the preparation of good, weaving, looking after the turkeys and caring for babes. Several times a week villagers would flood into the city center at dawn to attend the market. Here products of every description were, bought, traded and sold; coca beans often being used as a form of currency in these transactions. Traders from as far away as the Caribbean coast and from the central highlands were also there selling their exotic wares of obsidian, jade, quetzal feathers, conch shells, dried fish, and sea salt. On special occasions the general public was invited to witness a special ceremony or a ball game at the Great Plaza. Thousands of beautifully dressed citizens filled the plaza and sat before the steps of the pyramid of the Giant Jaguar where their imaginations were captured by the spectible. Extravagantly robed priests wearing masks depicting animal nagulas and mythic entities, performed rituals designed to teach the cosmology, morality, and belief system which provided the foundations of Mayan culture. Ball games were certainly attended with great enthusiasm. These displays of atheltic prowess and skill must have been very exciting as well as somewhat macabre. Evidence suggests that the sacred ball game became quite violent as players literally wagered their lives on the outcome. The losers were offered in sacrifice to the gods.
MAYAN ACHIEVEMENTS
Of all the native people of the Americas only the Maya were completely literate, having a system of writing capable of expressing an unlimited range of ideas. Like the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, the Mayan system is not a pure phonetic system but rather employs a variety of symbol types including deity name glyphs expressing entire concepts, phonetic glyphs which stood for individual syllables, bar and dot numbers, and day signs. Unfortunately, of the thousands of Mayan books - Biographies, collections of songs, books of science, history, prophesy, genealogies - only four survived the fanatical book-burners of the Spanish conquest.
A system of numeric calculations was developed using a system of dots and bars. One dot equals the number 1. One bar equals the number 5. Thus, two bars placed one atop the other with two dots on top gave the number 12. The discovery of the zero, written as a stylized shell, allowed the Maya to develop a vigesimal place system, in which every added zero pultiplies the number by 20 (i.e., 1, 20, 400, 8000 etc.) The Maya developed a more complex calendar system than any other pre-modern civilization. It was constructed from three main counts or cycles running alongside and interacting with one another; the Long Count, the Sacred Almanac, and the Solar Year cycles. Additionally, the Maya developed more ritual and astronomical cycles which interacted with the 3 main ones. The Long Count consist of cycles which increase by a factor of 20. Thus, the Long Count year of 360 days, called Tun, was multiplied by 20 to get the Katun of 7,200 days. Twenty Katun cycles made one Baktun cycle of 144,000 days. And so on until the highest cycle, the alatun, consisting of 160,000 Baktunes or about 63 million of our years. Using the Long Count cycle, the Maya ran their calendar backward and forward for immense spans of time.
The sacred Almanac was used primarily to schedule ceremonial activities and for horoscopes. It consists of a "week" of 20 days which are named after gods who repeat themselves in endless succession. Running alongside the 20 days are the numbers 1 to 13, which also repeat themselves endlessly. It takes 260 days (13 x 20) for any combination of day name and number to return. This almanac has existed at least since 500 BC and is still used today by traditional Maya day-keepers in highland Guatemala. The Solar Year consisted of 365 days divided into 18 months of 20 days, and final period of 5 days. The Solar Year cycle was mainly concerned with farming and continues to be used today by contemporary Highland Guatemalan Maya. Mayan astronomers developed lunar cycle that consisted of the age of the current moon counted from disappearance, the position of the moon in a lunar half-year and the number of days in the current moon. All the visible planets were followed by Mayan astronomers who calculated their symodical revolution. For example, they calculated Venus, synodical revolution with an error of only 23 seconds from the actual figure of 583.92 days.